AJP - GI Watch the video to see how APS reaches out to developing nations.
HOME HELP FEEDBACK SUBSCRIPTIONS ARCHIVE SEARCH TABLE OF CONTENTS
QUICK SEARCH:   [advanced]


     

Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 282: G288-G299, 2002; doi:10.1152/ajpgi.00124.2001
0193-1857/02 $5.00
This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Full Text (PDF)
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Right arrow Citation Map
Services
Right arrow Email this article to a friend
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in ISI Web of Science
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via HighWire
Right arrow Citing Articles via ISI Web of Science (10)
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Salapatek, A. M. F.
Right arrow Articles by Diamant, N. E.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Salapatek, A. M. F.
Right arrow Articles by Diamant, N. E.
Vol. 282, Issue 2, G288-G299, February 2002

Ion channel diversity in the feline smooth muscle esophagus

Anne Marie F. Salapatek1, Junzhi Ji2, and Nicholas E. Diamant2

1 Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A8; and 2 University Health Network and University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5T 2S8, Canada


    ABSTRACT
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS AND METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES

We have characterized ion-channel identity and density differences along the feline smooth muscle esophagus using patch-clamp recording. Current clamp recording revealed that the resting membrane potential (RMP) of esophageal smooth muscle cells (SMC) from the circular layer at 4 cm above the lower esophageal sphincter (EBC4; LES) were more depolarized than at 2 cm above LES. Higher distal Na+ permeability (but not Cl- permeability) contributes to this RMP difference. K+ channels but not large-conductance Ca2+-activated K+ (BKCa) channels contribute to RMP at both levels, because nonspecific K+-channel blockers depolarize all SMC. Depolarization of SMC under voltage clamp revealed that the density of voltage-dependent K+ channels (KV) was greatest at EBC4 due to increased BKCa. Delayed rectifier K+ channels (KDR), compatible with subtype KV1.2, were present at both levels. Differences in KCa-to-KDR channel ratios were also manifest by predictable shifts in voltage-dependent inactivation at EBC4 when BKCa channels were blocked. We provide the first evidence for regional electrophysiological differences along the esophageal body resulting from SMC ion channel diversity, which could allow for differential muscular responses to innervation and varied muscular contribution to peristaltic contractions along the esophagus.

patch clamp; delayed rectifier K+ channels; large-conductance calcium-activated K+ channels; esophageal motility


    INTRODUCTION
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS AND METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES

IN THE SMOOTH MUSCLE ESOPHAGUS, swallow-induced peristaltic contractions are usually considered to be the result of the local muscle responding passively to neural signals that direct inhibition and excitation along the esophagus; and consequently, neural control has been considered to be sufficient for regulation of peristalsis (9, 12, 18, 20, 21, 47, 63). As a result, most studies to date have generally ignored any significant role for the muscle. However, when adequately stimulated (6-8, 12, 17, 25, 26, 29, 37, 40, 42-44, 54, 57, 63, 65, 68) and with excitation in the face of nerve blockade (with TTX), a single or repetitive contraction can traverse the smooth muscle esophagus at velocities similar to swallow-induced peristalsis (25, 42, 54). That is, the muscle itself provides another level of control for peristalsis. Therefore, muscle properties, especially if regional differences exist, hold the potential to impact on the nature of peristaltic contractions and the responses of the muscle to its innervation.

Regional differences in neural influence have been described along the esophageal body, the excitatory (cholinergic) influence most prominent proximally (2, 12, 13, 19, 21, 40, 57, 67) and the inhibitory (nitrergic-nitric oxide) influence most active distally (2, 10, 35, 67). However, there are no obvious objective differences in neural elements to explain the differing neural influences (34, 38, 39, 46, 56, 57). Therefore, regional differences in muscle properties may be present to provide an alternative basis for the gradients in excitatory and inhibitory neural influences. Although in both the cat (37, 68) and opossum (16, 18), resting membrane potential (RMP) of the lower esophageal sphincter (LES; -40 to -50 mV) is consistently reported as less negative than that seen in the esophageal body (-50 to -60 mV) (13, 14, 17, 29), information about the RMP along the esophageal body (EB) is inconsistent. Decktor and Ryan (17) demonstrated a progressive decrease of the RMP along the opossum circular muscle esophagus (-52.8 to -43.5 mV), whereas others comparing opossum circular muscle between 8 and 2 cm above the LES have found no difference in the RMP (13, 14). To date, there are no studies of regional differences in ion channels along the smooth muscle EB.

In light of these inconsistencies and the potential importance of muscular properties to coordinated esophageal contractile activity, the present experiments were performed to determine whether regional differences exist in the EB smooth muscle, with attention to 1) the RMP and elucidation of some of the critical ions that contribute to its generation and 2) voltage-activated currents and characterization of K+-channel subtypes [voltage-dependent K+-channels (KV)] that underlie these responses. Studies were performed in isolated SMCs (SMC) dissociated from circular and longitudinal muscle layers along the EB. Portions of this work have been published elsewhere in abstract form (49, 52).


    MATERIALS AND METHODS
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS AND METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES

Cell isolation. Fasted mongrel cats of either sex were euthanized with an overdose of pentobarbital sodium (100 mg/kg) following a protocol approved by University Health Network Animal Care Committee and following the guidelines of the Canadian Council on Animal Care. The esophagus and upper gastric region were excised and placed in cold (4°C) Krebs-Ringer solution equilibrated with 5% CO2 and 95% O2 and having the following composition (in mM): 115.0 NaCl, 4.6 KCl, 1.2 NaH2PO4, 1.2 MgSO4, 22.0 NaHCO3, 2.5 CaCl2, and 11.0 glucose. The esophagus was opened on the greater gastric curvature side, and the mucosa was removed by blunt dissection. Two muscular equivalents of the LES were revealed within a thickened ring of muscle composed of clasp fibers with oblique gastric sling fibers on either side (44). For study of esophageal body muscle, circular and longitudinal muscle strips (2 mm wide) were cut from 4 and 2 cm above the LES clasp region.

These smooth muscle strips were cut into cubes ~2 mm3, and SMC were isolated enzymatically as previously described (51). In brief, after tissues were incubated with enzymes, they were washed with enzyme-free dissociation solution and then mechanically agitated with siliconized Pasteur pipettes to disperse the tissue and isolate single SMC. All cells used were studied at room temperature (22-24°C) within 8 h of isolation.

Electrophysiological recording and data analysis. Isolated esophageal SMC were allowed to settle and adhere for 30 min to the bottom of a recording chamber, which was mounted on an inverted microscope (Olympus CK20, Olympus America, NY). The cells were then washed by perfusion with Ca2+-containing external solution (in mM): 140.0 NaCl, 4.5 KCl, 2.5 CaCl2, 1.0 MgCl2, 10.0 HEPES, and 5.5 glucose, pH adjusted to 7.35 with NaOH. Patch electrodes were made using borosilicate glass capillary tubes (Sutter Instruments, CA) using a micropipette puller (model PP-83, Narishige, Japan). Pipettes were fire polished using a microforge (MF-83, Narishige) to resistances of 3-6 MOmega . In all experiments, unless otherwise stated, patch pipettes were filled with a standard high K+ pipette solution containing the following (in mM): 140.0 KCl, 0.5 CaCl2, 1.0 MgCl2, 10.0 HEPES, 4.0 Na2ATP, and 0.3 EGTA, pH adjusted to 7.2 with KOH. The calculated calcium concentration, 113 nM, was estimated using MaxChelator software (version 6.72) (4). In some experiments, all K+ flux was blocked by substituting KCl with 122 mM CsCl and 22 mM TEA in the standard pipette solution. The current flow between the pipette and the bath solution was compensated to achieve a zero baseline before seal formation and after breakthrough. Standard tight-seal recording techniques for whole cell and cell-attached single-channel recording were employed (24). The resting potential was measured immediately after achieving the whole cell configuration, and at least 5 min were allowed for equilibration between the pipette solution and the intracellular solution and to permit membrane conductances to stabilize.

Whole cell membrane potentials and currents, and cell-attached patch single-channel recordings were made with an Axopatch-1D patch-clamp amplifier (Axon Instruments, CA) and recorded online by a computer (IBM AT) using pClamp software (Axon Instruments, version 6.0). Whole cell currents were sampled at 2 kHz and filtered at 1 kHz. Single-channel currents were sampled at 2 kHz and filtered at 500 Hz. Whole cell capacitances and access resistances were routinely and transiently recorded throughout the experiment using standard methods. Leak current was assessed by observing the presence of increasing current flow at the holding potential, where initial compensation had set current flow to zero. Cells with leak currents >10 pA were considered leaky and were not further studied. For whole cell studies, membrane currents were obtained under voltage-clamp conditions in response to 20 mV depolarizations from a holding potential of -50 mV, stepping from -70 to +70 mV and held for 250 ms. Current-voltage curves were then constructed for steady-state currents (at the end of each current trace) at each voltage step. The peak outward current at +70 mV was then measured and compared after each pharmacological manipulation. Whole cell data were analyzed using Clampfit software (pClamp 6.0 suite, Axon Instruments). SMC could be patch clamped for up to 2 h in normal external solution with no significant change in cell currents or membrane potential (data not shown). In experiments performed in the cell-attached patch configuration, SMC were kept in high K+ solutions and studied with pipettes containing normal extracellular solution. Test pulses of 330 ms at varying holding potentials were applied every 3 s. Single-channel data were analyzed using Fetchan and pSTAT software (pClamp 6.0 suite).

To study whole cell current kinetics, steady-state activation and inactivation curves were obtained using a two-pulse protocol. To measure current activation, whole cell K+-channel currents were elicited by a series of test pulses between -60 and +90 mV in 10-mV steps from a holding potential of -50 mV and returned to a subsequent potential of -30 mV for 150 ms to evoke tail currents. The voltage-dependent activation was derived from a measure of the peak level of the tail current. Each peak tail current was then normalized to the maximal tail-current amplitude and plotted against the voltage of the test pulses. Smooth lines were obtained from best fits of data to the Boltzmann equation: I/Imax {1 + exp[(V1/2 - Vm)/k]}-1, where I/Imax is the relative current, Vm is the membrane potential (the voltage applied), V1/2 is the half-maximal voltage of activation, and k is the slope factor. V1/2 and k were determined for each current obtained from individual cells.

To study whole current inactivation, cells were held at -50 mV and then a 4.5-s depolarizing conditioning pulse to different voltages was followed by a 300-ms test pulse to +30 mV. Conditioning and test pulses were separated by 5 ms before returning to the holding potential (-50 mV). Steady-state inactivation curves were normalized by dividing the current amplitude (I) during the test pulse by the maximal amplitude obtained in the absence of a conditioning pulse (Imax) and the data are fitted with the Boltzmann function: I/Imax = {1 + exp[(Vm-V1/2)/k]}-1. The V1/2 measured here is interpreted as the half-maximal voltage of inactivation.

Data are expressed as arithmetic mean ± SE. Because variation between cells in any region was approximately the same as interanimal variation (not >3 mV), multiple observations for the same manipulation (pharmacological and/or electrophysiological) made on cells in one region from one animal were averaged, and the letter n represents the number of animals with each n representing at least six cells. The data sets involving the effects of K+-channel blockers on the peak steady-state current or at peak voltage applied were analyzed by one-way ANOVA. The statistical significance of differences in the means was determined by Tukey's-Kramer multiple-comparisons test, in which P values <0.05 were considered significant and denoted in the following manner: *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01, ***P < 0.001.

Solutions and drugs. Test solutions were applied by perfusion (2-3 ml/min) or added to the bath to obtain the final concentration as indicated. In one series of experiments, NaCl was replaced isosmotically by arginine chloride (both L- and D-isoforms were tested and yielded similar results). Changes in extracellular K+ concentration were made by isosmotic substitution of NaCl for KCl, whereas changes in Cl- concentration were made by isosmotic substitution of NaCl for Na+ aspartate. Drug concentrations applied were chosen based on other studies done in our laboratory that showed them to be maximally effective. Stock solutions of 4-aminopyridine (4-AP) and nifedipine were made up in DMSO and diluted further (100- to 1,000-fold) with extracellular solution. Tetraethylammonium chloride (TEA) was dissolved in ddH2O. Iberiotoxin (IbTX; RBI, Natick, MA) or alpha -dendrotoxin (Alomone Labs, Jerusalem, Israel) was dissolved in ddH2O and stored at -22°C, with each aliquot being defrosted once and used over a 6-h study period. All drugs were added to the chamber in microliter volumes. Routine controls with the vehicles used for dissolving each reagent were done to exclude nonspecific effects of the diluent. All chemicals, excluding those noted exceptions, were purchased from Sigma Chemical (St. Louis, MO).


    RESULTS
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS AND METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES

Two hundred eighty-eight SMCs were patch clamped. The whole cell capacitance was routinely recorded with no significant difference in mean values for circular muscle 4 cm above the LES (EBC4) and 2 cm above the LES (EBC2), these being 62.7 ± 4.6 and 65.3 ± 4.2 pF, respectively. Longitudinal muscle cells were visually longer and had significantly larger cell capacitances (an indicator of larger cell surface area) than circular muscles with mean capacitance measures of 74.6 ± 4.7 and 71.2 ± 2.7 pF for longitudinal muscle at 4 (EBL4) and 2 cm above LES (EBL2). These observed differences in size and capacitance among circular and longitudinal muscle cells are important for studies in which whole cell current densities are determined (see KV density). Muscle cell contractility to 10 mM KCl and subsequent relaxation with the removal of KCl from the extracellular media were used as indexes of cell viability.

Because little difference in RMP existed along the longitudinal muscle, subsequent studies were directed primarily toward examination of the circular muscle layer of the esophageal body with comparison of the EBC4 and EBC2 regions. Limited characterization studies were also performed on the longitudinal muscle layer, and these data are presented where available.

RMP. The mean RMP of each region is shown in Fig. 1A and Table 1. For these whole cell measurements, the cells were studied with a standard high-K+ pipette solution under current clamp conditions. The values recorded in esophageal body SMC from the circular layers EBC4 and EBC2 were significantly different from each other, -51.7 ± 2.4 vs. -45.9 ± 2.6 mV, respectively (n = 15). Therefore, the RMP of cells from the circular muscle was less negative distally. This gradient in RMP was not seen in the longitudinal muscle. RMP for SMC from the longitudinal layer of the esophageal body from EBL4 and EBL2 were not significantly different from each other, -53.3 ± 2.3 and -50.9 ± 2.1 mV, respectively (n = 12). The RMP at EBL2 was significantly more negative than that of adjacent circular muscle at EBC2 (Fig. 1A).


View larger version (15K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Fig. 1.   A: resting membrane potential (RMP) of isolated smooth muscle cells (SMC) from the feline esophagus 4 (EB4) and 2 cm (EB2) above the lower esophageal sphincter (LES). Longitudinal muscle corresponds to the filled bars and circular muscle to the open bars. The brackets designate statistically significant differences between recorded parameters. The error bars represent standard deviation. The RMP of circular muscle cells was less negative distally. The RMP of longitudinal muscle cells from the 2 sites was not different. At 2 cm above the LES, the RMP of circular muscle cells was significantly less than that of longitudinal muscle cells. B: effect of exchanging extracellular K+ concentration ([K]) on RMP of circular muscle cells. With increasing extracellular [K], the RMP followed the Nernst equation for EK. At [K] <= 30 mM, the RMP deviated significantly from EK at both levels, the deviation most marked in EBC2 cells.


                              
View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Table 1.   Resting membrane potentials

RMP and extracellular K+ concentration. The relationship between extracellular potassium concentration ([K+]), and RMP was examined in cells from the circular muscle layer at EBC4 and EBC2. Figure 1B plots the mean resting potential as a function of the extracellular [K+]. The smooth curves were obtained by fitting the data with the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz constant-field equation (22, 27). SMC from EBC4 more closely followed the straight line drawn according to the Nernst equation for a K+ channel-mediated current that has a slope of 58 mV/10-fold change in extracellular [K+]. However, at extracellular K+ <30 mM, the curves for SMC from both levels studied were less negative and deviated from those estimated to result solely through activity of K+ channels. Therefore, at rest, permeability to other ions was also contributing to the RMP observed.

Na+ and Cl- are two critical ions that could potentially contribute to the RMP, and the relative role of these two ions was assessed by two approaches: calculation of the relative permeabilities to Na+ (PNa/PK) and Cl- (PCl/Pk) obtained from the curve fitting (22, 27) and observing shifts in resting potentials with application of Na+- and Cl--free extracellular solution to the SMCs (Table 1). The calculated relative permeabilities are 0.13 for Na+ and <0.01 for Cl- in muscle cells from EBC4 compared with 0.16 and <0.01 in muscle cells from EBC2, respectively. These calculated values are supported by the observed shifts in resting potentials seen with the application of Na+- and Cl--free extracellular solution to cells from these two areas (see Table 1). Also shown in Table 1, Cl- replacement had no significant effect on the RMP at either layer. On the other hand, isotonic replacement of extracellular NaCl with arginine chloride (D- or L-isoform) significantly hyperpolarized all muscle cells, the greatest effect in EBC2 cells. Therefore, at rest, there is a significant Na+ but not Cl- permeability in cells at all four locations. Furthermore, the contribution of Na+ entry to the RMP is greater at EBC2 than at EBC4 and likely accounts, in large part, for the decreasing negativity in RMP distally.

Effect of K+ channel blockers on RMP. As shown in Table 1, contribution of a K+ conductance to the RMP was further assessed through the effects of K+-channel blockers. Application of the nonspecific K+-channel blocker TEA (10 mM) significantly depolarized all muscle cells by >16% (with maximal effects as great as 36%). Application of 1 mM 4-AP similarly depolarized all muscle cells significantly.

To assess whether the large-conductance Ca2+-activated K+ (BKCa) channel contributed to the RMP, the effects of low-dose TEA (1 mM) or IbTX (200 nM), a selective large conductance BKCa blocker, were determined (see Table 1). With the use of either KCa blocker, there was a lack of significant effect on resting potentials at either level or at either layer of the esophageal body, suggesting that BKCa channels do not contribute to resting potentials in either the circular or longitudinal musculature of the body. However, the effects of 4-AP, with the largest percentage depolarization occurring in EBC4 cells (34%), indicate that another K+ channel sensitive to 4-AP, perhaps a delayed rectifier (KDR, see below), is present in all SMC and contributing to their RMP.

KV density. Outward currents were elicited in freshly isolated SMC derived from each esophageal region, with a standard high-K+ pipette solution and a standard depolarizing voltage protocol applied (see MATERIALS AND METHODS). Typical families of current traces and the mean peak steady-state outward currents obtained using the above-described voltage protocol are shown in Fig. 2. When KCl in the pipette solution was substituted by CsCl (122 mM) or a nonspecific K+-channel blocker (22 mM TEA) was present in the bath, outward currents were abolished (data not shown). These results indicate that the outward currents were carried primarily by K ions passing through K+ channels. To adjust K+-channel current magnitudes for cell size, peak outward currents were divided by the measured cell membrane capacitance and expressed in pA/pF (Fig. 3), a measure of K+ channel density. Regional differences were seen.


View larger version (17K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Fig. 2.   Voltage-activated outward K+ currents (KV) evoked by the voltage protocol pictured at A, top and B, top. A: circular muscle at 4 (EBC4) and 2 (EBC2) cm above the LES. B: longitudinal muscle at 4 (EBL4) and 2 (EBL2) cm above the LES. Outward currents were largest in EBC4. 4-aminopyridine (4-AP; 1 mM) significantly reduced outward currents evoked by voltages >30 mV in all regions studied as shown by the current-voltage curves plotted.



View larger version (16K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Fig. 3.   Pharmacological characterization of KV density. K+-channel density recorded from EBC4 is significantly higher than that recorded from EBC2 (n = 12). Iberiotoxin (IbTX) reduced outward current at EBC4 only, whereas subsequent addition of 4-AP (1 mM) reduced outward currents at all regions to similar low levels.

In the circular muscle of the esophageal body, the currents were significantly larger and noisier in cells from more proximal EBC4 cells (3,150 ± 22.3 pA, n = 12) than in EBC2 cells (1,495 ± 32.4 pA, n = 12). Current density was also different between EBC4 (49.8 ± 2.1 pA/pF, n = 12) and EBC2 (23.4 ± 1.4 pA/pF, n = 12). The outward currents (EBL4: 1,575 ± 24.3 pA, n = 12, and EBL2: 1,661.4 ± 43.3 pA, n = 12) and current densities (EBL4: 20.6 ± 3.1 pA/pF, n = 12, and EBL2: 23.4 ± 1.4 pA/pF, n = 12) of longitudinal muscle cells were not different from each other. Their values were significantly lower than values of circular muscle at EB4 but similar to those at EB2.

Voltage-activated KCa and KDR channels. The channels contributing to the K+-channel currents evoked by depolarization were assessed pharmacologically. KCa channels are more sensitive to TEA and are blocked efficiently by low doses (1 mM) (11). IbTX is a specific large-conductance KCa-channel blocker. IbTX reduced the current density in EBC4 circular muscle but not in EBC2 muscle (Fig. 3). Therefore, the increased K+-current density in EBC4 appears to be due to the activity of BKCa channels, activity of which is little present at EBC2. Muscle cells in the longitudinal muscle layer at either EBL2 or EBL4 were unaffected by low-dose TEA (data not shown) or by IbTX (Fig. 3).

Several lines of evidence point to an important role for KDR currents. K+ currents of the KDR type are sensitive to 4-AP. As shown in the current-voltage relationship pictured in Fig. 2, 1 mM 4-AP significantly reduced peak outward current (at +70 mV) in SMC at all levels including EBC4, EBC2, EBL4, EBL2; the reduction was 60 ± 5%, 88 ± 11%, 89 ± 9%, 86 ± 13% (n = 6), respectively. As shown in Fig. 3, additional significant reduction in outward current magnitude was observed when 4-AP (1 mM) was applied with IbTX to cells from all esophageal regions. The sensitivity of the remaining current to 4-AP as well as to high doses of TEA (10 mM) suggests that the residual current is carried predominantly by KDR channels. This hypothesis is supported by the fact that the transient outward type of K+-channel current (KTO), which is also sensitive to 4-AP, is seen only as a small remnant current at either circular muscle location (see Fig. 4). The KTO is seen to be more quickly inactivating than that seen for the putative KDR. Therefore, in addition to the contribution of BKCa at EBC4, a sizeable portion of the remaining current in both EBC4 and EBC2 is likely attributable to a 4-AP-sensitive KDR activity. Of note, at EBC2, a 4-AP-resistant KDR current remains in Fig. 4B.


View larger version (19K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Fig. 4.   Transient outward K+ channel (KTO) currents. Transiently-activating currents were elicited by depolarizing pulses from a more hyperpolarized holding potential of -90 mV as shown in the inset. Activity of the large-conductance calcium-activated K+ current was inhibited with tetraethylammonium choride (TEA) or low calcium (8 nM intrapipette Ca2+). A: EBC4. After addition of TEA (1 mM), a more rapidly inactivating current is obtained. B: EBC2. When a pipette containing low Ca2+ (8 nM; high EGTA, 11 mM) is applied, a similar more rapidly inactivating current is obtained, as in A. This current is blocked by addition of 4-AP (1 mM) and is compatible with a KTO current. A small 4-AP-insensitive current component remains.

Finally, Fig. 5 demonstrates that KDR single channels could routinely be recorded in both EBC4 and EBC2 cells in the cell-attached configuration. The extracellular solution was high in K+ with 1,2-bis(2-aminophenoxy)ethane-N,N,N',N'-tetraacetic acid (BAPTA)-AM (100 µM), a cell-permeant Ca2+ chelator also present in the bath, and the pipette solution contained high Na+. The mean slope conductance of the KDR channels in these tissues is 18.8 ± 1.2 pS (n = 5), and 4-AP (1 mM) greatly reduced KDR activity (not shown), providing further evidence of their identity. In addition, dendrotoxin (DTX; maximal dose used, 200 nM) reduced EBC4 peak currents by 62 ± 11% (n = 5) and all currents at voltages greater than or equal to -30 mV (Fig. 6) to levels not unlike that seen with 4-AP (Fig. 2). Furthermore, DTX also reduced EBC2 peak currents to a greater extent, by 80 ± 9% (n = 4). This finding provides further evidence that KDR currents are a major contributor to voltage-activated currents at both esophageal levels.


View larger version (16K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Fig. 5.   Delayed rectifier K+ (KDR) single-channel characterization. Single-channel currents were recorded in the cell-attached patch configuration from EBC2 and EBC4 in the presence of the Ca2+ chelator 1,2-bis(2-aminophenoxy)ethane-N,N,N',N'-tetraacetic acid-AM (100 µM). A: unitary K+-channel current amplitude increased with increased voltages applied. These currents were reduced by 1 mM 4-AP (intrapipette; not shown). B: plotting the unitary current against the voltage applied yielded a slope conductance of 18.8 pS at either location (data shown here pooled, 26 cells from 4 animals).



View larger version (16K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Fig. 6.   Effect of specific KDR blocker dendrotoxin (DTX) on K+ currents. K+ currents shown were recorded using a 1-step protocol from -50 to +70 mV (inset). A: basal K+ currents (open circle ) were significantly reduced by addition of DTX (200 nM, ) at all voltages greater than -30 mV. B: current-voltage curves demonstrate that DTX blocked >60% and 80% of the K+ current at EBC4 and EBC2, respectively.

Voltage-dependent activation and inactivation of KDR and KCa currents. On the basis of the pharmacological analyses described above, both KDR and KCa channels contribute to the observed outward current with varying involvement along the smooth muscle esophagus. For example, within esophageal body circular muscle, both KDR and KCa channels are involved at EBC4, whereas at EBC2, only the KDR channel plays a significant role. The varying densities and ratios of KDR to KCa channels would also be expected to affect the kinetics of activation and inactivation of the whole cell K+ current.

Figure 7 shows that the voltage-dependent activation curve obtained from muscle cells of the circular muscle layer at EBC2 is shifted slightly but not significantly to the right relative to muscle cells from EBC4, with V1/2 being +11.3 and +12.6 mV, respectively, and the slope factor k equal to 13 ± 2 mV compared with 10 ± 1 mV.


View larger version (18K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Fig. 7.   Total outward current voltage-dependent activation along the esophageal body. With the use of a standard double-pulse protocol pictured at the top, K+ currents were evoked. A: typical activation tail current traces obtained from EBC2 and EBC4. B: currents obtained were plotted against the maximal current obtained. There was no significant difference in voltage-dependent activation in cells from EBC4 and EBC2.

To assess the inactivation of K+ channels in esophageal muscle cells from different regions, whole cell K+-channels currents were evoked by a double-pulse protocol (pictured at the top of the Fig. 8). The voltage-dependent inactivation curve of circular muscle cells from EBC4 is significantly shifted rightward relative to the inactivation curve for circular muscle cells from EBC2, with V1/2 being 0 mV compared with -19 mV, and k being 11.2 and 15, respectively. That is, more K+ channels are available to repolarize esophageal muscle at EBC4 than EBC2. Therefore, because differences in K+-channel density and subtype expression exist between EBC4 and EBC2, it is likely that the presence of BKCa channels at EBC4 contributes to the shifted inactivation properties. This hypothesis was tested by application of IbTX, a BKCa blocker, to EBC4 cells, and assessment of the whole cell current inactivation was repeated. With IbTX present, there was a leftward shift in EBC4 currents to values not significantly different from EBC2 alone (V1/2 to -21 mV, k to 13). Therefore, the regional difference in inactivation is likely due to a difference in KCa-channel activity between EBC4 and EBC2.


View larger version (21K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Fig. 8.   Total outward current voltage-dependent inactivation along the esophageal body. With the use of a standard double-pulse protocol pictured at the top, K+ currents were evoked. A: typical inactivation traces obtained during the second voltage pulse (+30 mV) obtained from circular SMCs from EBC2 and EBC4. B: currents obtained were plotted against the maximal current obtained. The inactivation curve for EBC4 was significantly shifted rightward compared with that of EBC2 cells. Application of the specific BKCa-channel blocker IbTX (10-7 M) resulted in a leftward shift in the inactivation curve for EBC4, which then was not significantly different from that of EBC2.


    DISCUSSION
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS AND METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES

Our studies demonstrate conclusively, for the first time, that there are significant regional differences in circular smooth muscle properties along the esophageal body and between the circular and longitudinal muscle layers. This regional diversity includes differences in the RMP, differences in the identity of the ion channels setting the RMP, and differences in ion channel density on voltage activation. It is reasonable to expect that these electrophysiological differences present in esophageal smooth muscle would have important functional implications. For example, in stomach, small bowel, and colon, there are regional differences in muscle characteristics such as RMP (16) and frequency of electrical slow-wave activity, which play important roles in regulating coordinated motor activity and contractile responses when the muscle is adequately excited (15). As well, such regional electrophysiological diversity is well described and is of functional importance (53) in other muscle tissues such as heart (3), vascular smooth muscle (33), and neurons (62) and has been effectively used to establish new considerations of etiology and pathogenesis and to design new therapies.

Gradients in RMP in the esophagus. A gradient in resting potential exists in circular muscle cells isolated from regions along the esophageal body (Fig. 1A, Table 1), with the RMP of muscle cells from the upper EBC4 level significantly more negative than muscle cells from the EBC2 level. Unlike the gradient along the circular smooth muscle esophagus, no gradient in resting potential was observed along the longitudinal muscle layer, the RMP being similar to the more negative value at EBC4. The magnitude of the RMP difference in circular muscle is like that recorded in the intact opossum esophagus with intracellular microelectrode (17) by one group but not confirmed by others (13, 14) who found the RMP to be uniformly more negative (approximately -50 mV). Similarly, Kannan et al. (29) found the RMP at 2 cm above the LES to be -49 mV. Therefore, in intact muscle, the consensus to date indicates that there is little, if any, gradient in RMP along the circular smooth muscle esophagus. If so, absence of a consistent difference in RMP along the intact circular muscle layer in the face of differences in isolated single cells raises important implications. For example: is the RMP of cells at one or the other level changed by electrical coupling through structures such as gap junctions to cells that tend to have a more negative RMP, such as muscle cells in the longitudinal layer (Table 1) or to other cells such as interstitial cells of Cajal (31)? If the ion channels and currents responsible for the RMP and those activated by voltage changes show regional differences, resetting the RMP would have effects on factors such as the activation and inactivation of voltage- and receptor-activated currents, the resulting membrane electrical events, and, presumably, excitation-contraction coupling. This aspect would be most relevant distally.

The RMP is established primarily by a resting K+ conductance, because the membrane potential shifted in response to changes in extracellular [K+] in all muscle cells studied (Fig. 1B). The K+ content of combined circular and longitudinal esophageal smooth muscle in the opossum is greater distally, which would be compatible with a more positive RMP distally (55). Our studies fit with a difference in the K+ content in the circular muscle. However, the relationship between the extracellular [K+] and RMP deviated from that predicted by the Nernst equation for a purely K+-selective current, indicating that the membrane potential is not determined solely by a resting K+ permeability. In circular muscle cells from level EB4 and EB2, the membrane permeability to Na+, with a PNa/PK of 0.12 and 0.16, respectively, also contributes to the RMP and probably accounts for the majority of the difference from the calculated equilibration potential for K+ (Ek = -85 mV). The observed hyperpolarization of all SMCs on application of Na+-free extracellular solution is consistent with a resting Na+ permeability. The lack of evidence of a voltage-activated Na+ channel indicates that another voltage-independent channel, such as a nonselective cation channel, may be involved. Nonselective cation channels are readily demonstrated in other gut smooth muscles (58) and have been implicated in setting the RMP as well as voltage and ACh-stimulated Ca2+ influxes. In addition, Na+ exchangers could also be involved because blockade of Na+ exchangers can hyperpolarize esophageal muscle (48).

The identity of some of the K+ channels involved in setting RMP in the muscle cells of the esophagus was assessed pharmacologically by the ability of various K+-channel blockers to shift the resting potential (Table 1). The ability of high doses of TEA (10 mM) or 4-AP to significantly shift RMP in all esophageal body muscle suggests that K+ channels sensitive to these blockers, such as KDR channels, are the primary determinant. Furthermore, our KV current-voltage curves (Fig. 2) indicate that KCa are not active until voltages greater than -30 mV are applied, whereas KDR channels are activated at lower voltages (-50 mV). Similar qualitative differences in the voltages required to activate KDR and KCa channels have been described in human esophageal muscle (64). Therefore, KDR channels are the major K+ channels contributing to RMP at both esophageal levels.

Recent studies demonstrate that very small KDR channel density differences can greatly influence the level at which the resting potential is set as well as influence its stability (32). In this context, it may be that a small increase in KDR density at EBC4 compared with EBC2 would contribute to a more negative RMP at EBC4. Two observations support this suggestion: 1) although the level to which the remaining IbTX-insensitive RMP was reduced by 4-AP was similar, 4-AP reduced the remaining RMP by 34% at EBC4, whereas at EBC2, the reduction was only 20% (shown in Table 1); and 2) the KDR density (as indicated by the IbTX-resistant voltage-activated current in Fig. 3) was marginally smaller (although not statistically different) at EBC2 than at EBC4. However, these assays are not sensitive enough to prove this conclusively.

BKCa do not contribute to RMP differences in the esophageal body because IbTX did not shift the RMP significantly. This is unlike previous studies in the canine sphincter muscle, in which KCa channels are involved in setting resting potentials as evidenced by the ability of IbTX or nifedipine to depolarize these cells (51). This difference between esophageal body and sphincter regions likely relates to their differences in function in which esophageal body tissues transiently contract and sphincter tissues are tonically contracted. Our recent study supports this hypothesis, because unique Ca2+-handling mechanisms of LES clasp cells were postulated to be responsible for KCa activation in this muscle (50). In opossum, the BKCa channel is activated at potentials more positive than -30 mV (36). In the human, single-channel KCa currents were seen only at voltages more positive than +70 mV unless ACh was added to shift the opening potential to near -30 mV (28), and with whole cell recording, the BKCa is only activated at positive membrane potentials (64). Our cat studies reveal activation of the BKCa at greater than -30 mV, as in the opossum, but no evidence for a role in maintaining the RMP (Fig. 2). Furthermore, if spontaneous transient outward currents are due to transient activation of a KCa current (60, 64) by release of Ca2+ from intracellular stores to aid in setting the RMP, it is unlikely that the BKCa plays a significant role in the cat and even less likely in the human.

KV channels in the esophagus. Voltage-activated K+ currents were demonstrated in all muscle cells studied. It was found that varying K+ channel density accounted for the significant differences in the magnitude of the depolarization-elicited outward current recorded in different muscle cells (Figs. 2 and 3). Muscle cells from the proximal esophagus (EBC4) had the highest K+ channel density. The KDR current accounted for >60% of this total outward K+ current as assessed by the effects of 4-AP (Fig. 2 and 3) in all esophageal body muscle cells studied. BKCa contribution was assessed by the ability of IbTX or low-dose TEA (data not shown) to block the outward K+ current. Whereas the BKCa current accounted for ~30% of the outward current in muscle cells from the circular layer at EBC4, it did not play a significant part in cells at any level in longitudinal layer or in circular layer cells at EB2. In human esophageal muscle, a sustained outward current is seen in both the circular and longitudinal muscle cells. This current is partially inhibited by selective BKCa blockade, but it is unclear whether this was seen in both circular and longitudinal muscle cells (64). Our findings suggested that not only did differences in channel density exist, but there were also differences in the ratio of KDR to KCa channels along the esophageal body, which may account for some of the functional differences observed along the esophagus and between muscle layers with voltage activation. Species differences may also exist.

Voltage activation of KDR currents has been reported in opossum esophagus in cells from the circular muscle layer (1, 36, 64). Depolarizing from a holding potential of -70 mV, Akbarali et al. (1) noted a KDR as remaining after TEA, 4-AP, and nifedipine and to activate at potentials over -50 mV. However, in the cat, when depolarizing from a holding potential of -50 mV in the presence of IbTX, we see a more typical KDR that is 4-AP sensitive. Similar KDR activity is seen in human esophageal muscle (64). Although the effect of 4-AP to depolarize the RMP was more prominent at EBC4, the 4-AP-sensitive K+ current density was not different between EBC4 and EBC2. Furthermore, single-channel studies in the cell-attached configuration showed that the KDR channels at both EBC4 and EBC2 had a similar unitary conductance of 18.8 pS (Fig. 5). Recent genetic identification of a large number of voltage-activated K+-channel genes reveals six families of KV, KV1-KV6, having a range of electrophysiological activity and biophysical properties (11, 23). On the basis of these findings, the KDR we see in esophageal circular muscle cells is most similar to the KV1.2 isoform, which is reported to have a relatively large single-channel conductance of 18 pS and is sensitive to TEA and 4-AP blockade in doses similar to those we found effective (11). This KDR isoform is sensitive to blockade by the specific toxin DTX such that 100 nM abolishes its current. In our studies (Fig. 6), 200 nM DTX reduces the outward current >60%, which is similar to the percentage of 4-AP-sensitive outward current remaining after KCa currents are blocked with IbTX in our voltage-activation studies (Fig. 3). Therefore, a significant portion of the KV current is likely due to KDR currents with KV1.2 pharmacological and biophysical properties. The presence of KV1.2 and KV1.5 isoforms has been identified in human esophageal circular and longitudinal smooth muscle (64).

In addition to pharmacological analyses, the differential distribution and densities of BKCa and KDR in circular muscle of the esophageal body were also reflected in the whole cell K+-current kinetic studies of voltage-dependent activation and inactivation properties in these regions. There was no significant difference in voltage-dependent activation between EBC4 and EBC2, and the slope of activation was relatively low (Fig. 7). Therefore, differences in voltage-dependent activation are likely not responsible for any differences in activation responses in these tissues, the activation reflecting primarily the characteristics of the KDR channel. On the other hand, the voltage-dependent inactivation was significantly different, with that of EBC4 shifted to the right relative to that recorded for EBC2 (Fig. 8). These findings indicate that the cumulative population of KV channels, that is both KCa and KDR, is available over a wider voltage range at EBC4. As a result, at EBC4, fewer K+ channels would inactivate early, and repolarization of this tissue would be expected to be more rapid, providing a potential basis for the shorter duration of contraction seen in the proximal esophagus (45). That is, the relative preponderance of these two K+ currents will affect the rate of repolarization, it tending to be more rapid with more BKCa activity. Of interest, as in insulinoma cells, chromaffin cells, neurons, crayfish muscle, and uterine myocytes, these data suggest that KCa at EBC4 are in fact capable of inactivating (66). Molecular characterization studies indicate that an accessory subunit similar to the other beta -subunits of KV channels confers inactivation (66). This finding raises the possibility that BKCa activity could be regulated to modulate the muscle excitability independently in each esophageal region and potentially contribute further to functional differences in contraction. For example, Wade et al. (64) have recently shown that blockers of the KDR and KCa channels can have different effects on circular esophageal muscle contraction in regard to resting tone, amplitude, and duration of phasic contractions and the production of repetitive activity.

In our studies, there is also evidence for a transient KTO current seen in cat esophageal body regions as previously noted in the opossum by Akbarali et al. (1). The KTO was characteristically blocked by 4-AP leaving a small 4-AP-resistant delayed rectifier component (Fig. 4B), the latter likely accounting for the small outward current that remains in all muscles after both IbTX and 4-AP are added (Fig. 3). Together, these findings suggest that the KTO current may not be playing a large part in the differences of voltage-activated currents or RMP in EBC4 and EBC2 cells. We did not explore these aspects, but they are open to testing. If differences are present, they may relate more to the time to onset of the action potential and resulting circular muscle contraction amplitude at each level. Blockade of the KTO current by 4-AP prolongs the time to onset of the action potential (1), and more prominent KTO activity distally, if present, could provide a contribution of the muscle to the increasing delays of the contraction along the smooth muscle esophagus.

The regional diversity we have demonstrated in esophageal smooth muscle has potential functional implications in health and in disease states. Because the main putative excitatory (ACh) and inhibitory (nitric oxide) neurotransmitters exert their effects to depolarize or hyperpolarize through actions on ion channels (32, 60), regional differences provide a basis for a muscle contribution to the nature of the peristaltic contraction. We, therefore, propose that muscle properties resident in regional ion channel diversity act to regulate the responses to the excitatory and inhibitory innervation and therefore contribute to the nature of the contraction and its orderly peristaltic progression. Information about these ion channel differences and responses opens the door to directing therapeutic agents at more specific regional targets, such as KV channels (30), that can regulate contraction features such as amplitude, duration, and delay to onset.


    ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Drs. P. Backx and M. B. Wheeler for kind donation of dendrotoxin.


    FOOTNOTES

This work was supported by a grant from the Medical Research Council of Canada and ASTRA Pharma PA-13527.

Address for reprint requests and other correspondence: N. E. Diamant, Univ. Health Network (Western Division), 399 Bathurst St., Rm. 12-419 McLaughlin Pavilion, Toronto, Ontario M5T 2S8, Canada (E-mail: ndiamant{at}uhnres.utronto.ca).

The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.

10.1152/ajpgi.00124.2001

Received 22 March 2001; accepted in final form 24 September 2001.


    REFERENCES
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS AND METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES

1.   Akbarali, HI, Hatakeyama N, Wang Q, and Goyal RK. Transient outward current in opossum esophageal circular muscle. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 268: G979-G987, 1995[Abstract/Free Full Text].

2.   Anand, N, and Paterson WG. Role of nitric oxide in esophageal peristalsis. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 266: G123-G131, 1994[Abstract/Free Full Text].

3.   Barry, DM, and Nerbonne JM. Myocardial potassium channel: electrophysiological and molecular diversity. Annu Rev Physiol 58: 363-394, 1996[Web of Science][Medline].

4.   Bers, DM, Patton CW, and Nuccitelli R. A practical guide to the preparation of Ca2+ buffers. Methods Cell Biol 40: 4-28, 1994.

5.   Chakder, S, Rosenthal GJ, and Rattan S. In vivo and in vitro influence of human recombinant hemoglobin on esophageal function. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 268: G443-G450, 1995[Abstract/Free Full Text].

6.   Chan, WWL, and Diamant NE. Electrical off response of cat esophageal smooth muscle: an analog simulation. Am J Physiol 230: 233-238, 1976.

7.   Christensen, J, and Lund GF. Atropine excitation of esophageal smooth muscle. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 163: 287-289, 1968[Abstract/Free Full Text].

8.   Christensen, J, and Lund GF. Esophageal responses to distension and electrical stimulation. J Clin Invest 48: 408-419, 1969.

9.   Clouse, RE, and Diamant NE. Motor physiology and motor disorders of the esophagus. Gastro-intestinal and Liver Disease (6th ed.), edited by Sleisenger MH, Feldman M, and Scharschmidt BF., 1998.

10.   Conklin, JL, Murray J, Ledlow A, Clark E, Hayek B, Picken H, and Rosenthal G. Effects of recombinant human hemoglobin on motor functions of the opossum esophagus. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 273: 762-767, 1995[Abstract/Free Full Text].

11.   Conley, EC, and Brammer WJ. The Ion Channel Facts Book: Voltage-Gated Channels London: Academic, 1999.

12.   Crist, J, Gidda JS, and Goyal RK. Intramural mechanism of esophageal peristalsis: roles of cholinergic and noncholinergic nerves. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 81: 3595-3599, 1984[Abstract/Free Full Text].

13.   Crist, J, Kauvar D, and Goyal RK. Gradient of cholinergic innervation in opossum esophageal circular smooth muscle. Gullet 1: 92-98, 1991.

14.   Crist, J, Surprenant A, and Goyal RK. Intracellular studies of electrical membrane properties of opossum esophageal circular smooth muscle. Gastroenterology 92: 987-992, 1987[Web of Science][Medline].

15.   Daniel, EE, Bardakjian BL, Huizinga JD, and Diamant NE. Relaxation oscillators and core conductor models are needed to understand GI electrical activities. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 266: G339-G349, 1994[Abstract/Free Full Text].

16.   Daniel, EE, Taylor GS, and Holman ME. The myogenic basis of active tension in the lower esophageal sphincter (Abstract). Gastroenterology 70: 874A, 1976.

17.   Decktor, DL, and Ryan JP. Transmembrane voltage of opossum esophageal smooth muscle and its response to electrical stimulation of intrinsic nerves. Gastroenterology 82: 301-308, 1982[Web of Science][Medline].

18.   Diamant, NE, and El-Sharkawy TY. Neural control of esophageal peristalsis. A conceptual analysis. Gastroenterology 72: 546-556, 1977[Web of Science][Medline].

19.   Dodds, WH, Christensen J, Dent J, Arndorfer RC, and Wood JD. Pharmacologic investigation of primary peristalsis in smooth muscle portion of opossum esophagus. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab Gastrointest Physiol 237: E561-E566, 1979[Free Full Text].

20.   Dodds, WJ, Christensen J, Dent J, Wood JD, Arndorfer RC, and Cohen EB. Responses of feline esophagus to cervical vagal stimulation. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab Gastrointest Physiol 235: E63-E73, 1978[Abstract/Free Full Text].

21.   Gilbert, RJ, and Dodds WJ. Effect of selective muscarinic antagonists on peristaltic contractions in opossum smooth muscle. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 250: G50-G59, 1986.

22.   Goldman, DE. Potential, impedance, and rectification in membranes. J Gen Physiol 27: 37-60, 1943[Abstract/Free Full Text].

23.   Grissmer, S, Nguyen AN, Aiyar J, Hanson DC, Mather RH, Gutman GA, Karmilowicz MJ, Superin DD, and Chandy KG. Pharmacological characterization of five cloned voltage-gated K+ channels, types Kv1.1, 12, 13, 15, and 31, stably expressed in mammalian cell lines. Mol Pharmacol 45: 1227-1234, 1994[Abstract].

24.   Hamill, OP, Marty A, Neher E, Sakmann B, and Sigworth FJ. Improved patch clamp techniques for high resolution current recording from cells and cell-free membrane patches. Pflügers Arch 391: 85-100, 1981[Web of Science][Medline].

25.   Helm, JF, Bro SL, Dodds WJ, Sarna SK, and Hoffmann RG. Myogenic mechanism for peristalsis in opossum smooth muscle esophagus. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 263: G953-G959, 1992[Abstract/Free Full Text].

26.   Helm, JF, Bro SL, Dodds WJ, Sarna SK, Hoffmann RG, and Arndorfer RC. Myogenic oscillatory mechanism for opossum esophageal smooth muscle contractions. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 261: G377-G383, 1991[Abstract/Free Full Text].

27.   Hodgkin, AL, and Katz B. The effect of sodium ions on the electrical activity of the giant axon of the squid. J Physiol (Lond) 108: 37-77, 1949.

28.   Hurley, BR, Preiksaitis HG, and Sims SM. Characterization and regulation of Ca2+-dependent K+ channels in human esophageal smooth muscle. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 276: G843-G852, 1999[Abstract/Free Full Text].

29.   Kannan, MS, Jager LP, and Daniel EE. Electrical properties of SMC membrane of opossum esophagus. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 248: G342-G346, 1985[Abstract/Free Full Text].

30.   Lencer, WI, and Alper SL. The potassium channel and how it works. Gastroenterology 116: 216-217, 1999[Medline].

31.   Liu, LW, and Huizinga JD. Electrical coupling of circular muscle to longitudinal muscle and interstitial cells of Cajal in canine colon. J Physiol (Lond) 470: 445-461, 1993[Abstract/Free Full Text].

32.   Marom, S, Salman H, Lyakhov V, and Braun E. Effects of density and gating of delayed-rectifier potassium channels on resting membrane potential and its fluctuations. J Membr Biol 154: 267-274, 1996[Web of Science][Medline].

33.   Michelakis, ED, Reeve HL, Huang Tolarova JM, Nelson DP, Weir EK, and Archer SL. Potassium channels diversity in vascular SMCs. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 75: 889-897, 1997[Web of Science][Medline].

34.   Murray, JA, and Clark ED. Characterization of nitric oxide syntase in the opossum esophagus. Gastroenterology 106: 1444-1450, 1994[Web of Science][Medline].

35.   Murray, JA, Ledlow A, Launspach J, Evans D, Loveday M, and Conklin JL. The effects of recombinant human hemoglobin on esophageal motor function in humans. Gastroenterology 109: 1241-1248, 1995[Web of Science][Medline].

36.   Murray, JA, Shibata EF, Buresh TL, Picken H, O'Meara BW, and Conklin JL. Nitric oxide modulates calcium-activated potassium current in muscle cells from opossum esophagus. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 269: G606-G612, 1995[Abstract/Free Full Text].

37.   Niel, JP, and Miolan JP. Involvement of a cholinergic mechanism in the sustained depolarization and contraction of the lower oesophageal sphincter muscle cells in the cat. Neurosci 36: 803-809, 1990[Web of Science][Medline].

38.   Ny, L, Alm P, Ekstrom P, Hannibal J, Larsson B, and Andersson KE. Nitric oxide syntase-containing, peptide-containing, and acetylcholinesterase-positive nerves in the cat lower oesophagus. Histochem J 26: 721-733, 1994[Web of Science][Medline].

39.   Ny, L, Alm P, Larsson B, Ekstrom P, and Andersson KE. Nitric oxide pathway in cat esophagus: localization of nitric oxide synthase and functional effects. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 268: G59-G70, 1995[Abstract/Free Full Text].

40.   Paterson, WG. Electrical correlates of peristaltic and nonperistaltic contractions in the opossum smooth muscle esophagus. Gastroenterology 97: 665-675, 1989[Web of Science][Medline].

41.   Paterson, WG, Hynna-Liepert TT, and Selucky M. Comparison of primary and secondary esophageal peristalsis in humans: effect of atropine. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 260: G52-G57, 1991[Abstract/Free Full Text].

42.   Preiksaitis, HG, and Diamant NE. Myogenic mechanism for peristalsis in the cat esophagus. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 277: G306-G313, 1999[Abstract/Free Full Text].

43.   Preiksaitis, HG, and Diamant NE. Phasic contractions of the muscular components of human esophagus and gastroesophageal junction in vitro. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 73: 356-363, 1995[Web of Science][Medline].

44.   Preiksaitis, HG, and Diamant NE. Regional differences in cholinergic activity of muscle fibers from the human gastroesophageal junction. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 272: G1321-G1327, 1997[Abstract/Free Full Text].

45.   Richter, JE, Wu WC, Johns DN, Blackwell JN, Nelson JL, Castell JA, and Castell DO. Esophageal manometry in 95 healthy adult volunteers. Dig Dis Sci 32: 583-592, 1987[Web of Science][Medline].

46.   Rimele, TJ, Rogers WA, and Gaginella TS. Characterization of muscarinic cholinergic receptors in the lower esophageal sphincter of the cat: binding of [3H]quinuclidinyl benzilate. Gastroenterology 77: 1225-1234, 1979[Web of Science][Medline].

47.   Roman, C, and Tieffenbach L. Recording the unit activity of vagal motor fibers innervating the baboon esophagus. J Physiol (Paris) 64: 479-506, 1972[Medline].

48.   Saha, JK, Sengupta JN, and Goyal RK. Role of chloride ions in lower esophageal sphincter tone and relaxation. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 263: G115-G126, 1992[Abstract/Free Full Text].

49.   Salapatek, AMF, and Diamant NE. Electrophysiological diversity along the feline smooth muscle esophagus (Abstract). Neurogastroenterol Motil 10: 68, 1998.

50.   Salapatek, AMF, Ji J, and Diamant NE. Ion channel diversity along the feline smooth muscle esophagus: functional implications (Abstract). Neurogastroenterol Motil 11: 292, 1999.

51.   Salapatek, AMF, Lam A, and Daniel EE. Calcium source diversity in canine lower esophageal sphincter muscle. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 287: 98-106, 1998[Abstract/Free Full Text].

52.   Salapatek, AMF, Wang YF, Mao YK, Mori M, and Daniel EE. Myogenic NOS in canine lower esophageal sphincter: enzyme activation, substrate recycling, and product actions. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 274: C1145-C1157, 1998[Abstract/Free Full Text].

53.   Sanguinetti, MC, and Spector PS. Potassium channelopathies. Neuropharmacology 36: 755-762, 1997[Web of Science][Medline].

54.   Sarna, SK, Daniel EE, and Waterfall WE. Myogenic and neural control systems for esophageal motility. Gastroenterology 73: 1345-1352, 1977[Web of Science][Medline].

55.   Schulze, K, Hajjar JJ, and Christensen J. Regional differences in potassium content of smooth muscle from opossum. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab Gastrointest Physiol 235: E709-E713, 1978[Abstract/Free Full Text].

56.   Seelig, LL, Jr, Doody P, Brainard L, Gidda JS, and Goyal RK. Acetylcholinesterase and choline actyltransferase staining of neurons in the opossum esophagus. Anat Rec 209: 125-130, 1984[Medline].

57.   Serio, R, and Daniel EE. Electrophysiological analysis of responses to intrinsic nerves in circular muscle of opossum esophageal muscle. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 254: G107-G116, 1988[Abstract/Free Full Text].

58.   Sims, SM. Cholinergic activation of a non-selective cation current in canine gastric smooth muscle is associated with contraction. J Physiol (Lond) 449: 377-398, 1992[Abstract/Free Full Text].

59.   Sims, SM, and Janssen LJ. Cholinergic excitation of smooth muscle. News Physiol Sci 8: 207-212, 1993[Abstract/Free Full Text].

60.   Sims, SM, Vivaudou MB, Hillemeier C, Biancani P, Walsh JV, Jr, and Singer JJ. Membrane currents and cholinergic regulation of K+ current in esophageal SMCs. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 258: G794-G802, 1990[Abstract/Free Full Text].

61.   Sohn, UD, Han B, Tashjian AH, Behar J, and Biancani P. Agonist-independent, muscle-type-specific signal transduction pathways in cat esophageal and lower esophageal sphincter circular smooth muscle. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 273: 482-91, 1995[Abstract/Free Full Text].

62.   Storm, JF. Functional diversity of K+ currents in hippocampal pyramidal neurons. Semin Neurol 5: 79-92, 1993.

63.   Tieffenbach, L, and Roman C. The role of extrinsic vagal innervation in the motility of the smooth-muscled portion of the esophagus: electromyographic study in the cat and the baboon. J Physiol (Paris) 64: 193-226, 1972[Medline].

64.   Wade, GR, Laurier LG, Preiksaitis HG, and Sims SM. Delayed rectifier and Ca2+-dependent K+ currents in human esophagus: roles in regulating muscle contraction. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 277: G885-G895, 1999[Abstract/Free Full Text].

65.   Weisbrodt, NW, and Christensen J. Gradients of contractions in the opossum esophagus. Gastroenterology 62: 1159-1166, 1972[Web of Science][Medline].

66.   Xia, XM, Ding JP, and Lingle CJ. Molecular basis for the inactivation of Ca2+- and voltage-dependent BK channels in adrenal chromaffin cells and rat insulinoma tumor cells. J Neurosci 19: 5255-5264, 1999[Abstract/Free Full Text].

67.   Yamato, S, Spechler SJ, and Goyal RK. Role of nitric oxide in esophageal peristalsis in the opossum. Gastroenterology 103: 197-204, 1992[Web of Science][Medline].

68.   Zelcer, E, and Weisbrodt NW. Electrical and mechanical activity in the lower esophageal sphincter of the cat. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 246: G243-G247, 1984[Abstract/Free Full Text].

Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 282(2):G288-G299


This article has been cited by other articles:


Home page
 J. Exp. Biol.Home page
M. R. Keyser and J. L. Witten
Calcium-activated potassium channel of the tobacco hornworm, Manduca sexta: molecular characterization and expression analysis
J. Exp. Biol., November 1, 2005; 208(21): 4167 - 4179.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol.Home page
A. Muinuddin, K. Naqvi, L. Sheu, H. Y. Gaisano, and N. E. Diamant
Regional differences in cholinergic regulation of potassium current in feline esophageal circular smooth muscle
Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol, June 1, 2005; 288(6): G1233 - G1240.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol.Home page
A. Muinuddin, Y. Kang, H. Y. Gaisano, and N. E. Diamant
Regional differences in L-type Ca2+ channel expression in feline lower esophageal sphincter
Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol, October 1, 2004; 287(4): G772 - G781.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Full Text (PDF)
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Right arrow Citation Map
Services
Right arrow Email this article to a friend
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in ISI Web of Science
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via HighWire
Right arrow Citing Articles via ISI Web of Science (10)
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Salapatek, A. M. F.
Right arrow Articles by Diamant, N. E.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Salapatek, A. M. F.
Right arrow Articles by Diamant, N. E.

HOME HELP FEEDBACK SUBSCRIPTIONS ARCHIVE SEARCH TABLE OF CONTENTS
Visit Other APS Journals Online